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Introduction<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Out of various factors which control agricultural production, weather is the only factor over which man has no control (Verma:1998). Virtually, weather condition determines the failure or success of crops. It affects plant growth, influences development and spread of plant diseases, as well as soil integrity. Thus, in managing farming activities, weather forecasting is an indispensable tool. Knowledge of the onset of rainy or dry season as well as adverse weather conditions helps farmers prepare thereby minimizing crop destruction and loss.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n
Batad Rice Terraces. Photo: Marlon M. Martin,2009<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n In most of indigenous communities where modern technology is unavailable, farmers base their weather forecast on various indicators such as astronomical, environmental, biological, and socio-cultural phenomena including religious beliefs and practices. By inferring relationships between these indicators and weather conditions, farmers are guided in planning agricultural activities and devising adaptive coping mechanisms best suited to the anticipated climatic conditions. <\/p>\n\n\n\n In Ifugao, farmers have, since time immemorial, relied more on environmental, plant and animal behavior, rather than on astronomical factors, in making critical decisions concerning agricultural tasks. Activities related to terrace construction, maintenance, and rice cultivation depends heavily on the recognition of successions of observable environmental changes. By carefully observing weather and climate patterns as well as plant and animal behavior, adaptive measures were made to appropriately cope with changing conditions that are otherwise detrimental to their crops. Through many decades of observation and experience, the wisdom gained became a significant body in the people\u2019s indigenous knowledge and valuable heritage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Currently, however, much of the knowledge has vanished because of the effect of education, modernity, cash economy, and christianity. At present, there are very few Ifugaos who are knowledgeable on these weather indicators, hence, this study.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n As characteristic of weather conditions in the tropics, Ifugao experiences two distinct seasons, the dry and the wet. The rainy season starts in the latter part of June and ends in February the following year. On the other hand, dry season begins in March and ends in May. During the months of November to February, the climate is very cold; whereas the hottest days are experienced from March to April.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the local vernacular, rainy season is called inudanan<\/em> while the dry season is termed inugawan<\/em>. When the weather is uncertain, it is referred to as ngoldayon<\/em>. Meanwhile, types of rain that come during wet season have been classified by ancient Ifugaos as: bayuhibi <\/em>(rain shower), dondonyag<\/em> (having sunshine while it is raining), and dumalallu<\/em> (when hail accompanies heavy rainfall). Often, thunder (kidul<\/em>) and lightning (kilat or kodyam)<\/em> accompany heavy rainfall.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Inasmuch as traditional weather indicators are still the major source of weather and climate information for farm management in rural areas, understanding the local people’s perception on climate and weather changes, plant and animal behavior, astronomical and meteorological phenomena is essential.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1. Plant and Tree Indicators<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n The Ifugaos, in the earlier times, have recognized that some plants and trees are more sensitive to changes in atmospheric conditions than others. Some bloom or bear fruit during rainy season while others during the dry season.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Before the onset of the rainy season, the bilau<\/em> (arrow cane grass) and hanil <\/em>begin to bud and come into full bloom (bumuyyako<\/em>) several weeks later. When rainy days set in, mushrooms sprout along bushy areas while the Pulut <\/em>shrub, Binul, Gutmu<\/em>, and Dogwe<\/em> trees start to bear fruit. At this time also, the sunflower blooms. Its mature leaves and flowers are used as fertilizer at the rice ponds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n During the dry season, the Kallawag <\/em>vine and the Butgi<\/em> shrub come into fruition. Similarly, the Luhung, Adawe, <\/em>and Gabgab<\/em> trees bear flowers. It is rare for the bamboo, Bikal<\/em> vine, Anao<\/em>, and Bitbitkin<\/em> to bear flowers. When they do, old folks observed that an impending prolonged drought (dopal<\/em>) is coming. A scientific explanation could be that falling humidity associated with the beginning of the dry season triggers the flowering response noted (Baki,2006).<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2. Animal Indicators<\/em><\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n When sensing an upcoming rain, ants move fast in multitude in storing food to avoid famine. Scientifically, odors become intense than usual when rain develops because air density drops (Galacgac and Balicasan,2009). Since ants have good sense of smell, they sense the upcoming danger, hence, the urgency in their movement.<\/p>\n\n\n\n During rainy season, the bakkako<\/em> grasshoppers mature and multiply as rainfall allows the development of succulent and ample vegetation for grasshopper survival. Meantime, frogs emerge and croak to cope with the humid air caused by rain. However, when toads croak after a rainfall, this indicates a dry weather the following days (Gordon:1977 in Galacgac and Balicasan,2009).<\/p>\n\n\n\n Among birds, the Pippiwong<\/em> gather and become noisy when rain is forthcoming. At the later part of the rainy season, the Hiyot<\/em>, short legged Habu, Tiwad,<\/em> and Killing<\/em> arrive. Soon, the Uhib<\/em> arrives. The arrival of this bird signifies an impending omen of heavy rainfall and typhoons. Insects are also abundant during rainy season as there are plenty of fresh leaves for them to eat.<\/p>\n\n\n\n At the onset of the dry season, dragon flies swarm and the Dudun <\/em>grasshoppers turn up. Farmers catch them for food. Then, when farmers prepare their swidden farms, the Al-aladog<\/em> birds arrive. They go to freshly burnt swidden farms and play with the ashes. At this time also, the Buliklik<\/em> (eagle) hovers around looking for a prey.<\/p>\n\n\n\n The appearance of this bird signals a good weather for several days. Moreover, the Buding<\/em> (maya birds, Lonchurra spp.) arrive and feed on the maturing grains of rice in the pond fields. The farmers have to set up scare crows or watch over the rice fields to drive the birds away. According to Welty (1982; in Galacgac and Balicasan:2009), birds can detect infrasonic frequencies caused by changes in barometric pressure, hence, often affecting their behavior. Their movements in the sky, arrival or disappearance, and certain sounds or cries are believed to communicate the type and characteristic of the upcoming weather.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n The Pippiwong take refuge in their nest during a heavy rainfall<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 3. Meteorological Indicators<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n In the olden times, old folks usually predict weather mainly on the cloudiness of the sky. By observing the appearance and movement of clouds, Barton (1946) came up with the following characterization:<\/p>\n\n\n\n Kulput:<\/em> Clouds that scurry low<\/p>\n\n\n\n Bunabun: <\/em>Clouds that expand<\/p>\n\n\n\n Monhanubangal:<\/em> Clouds that pass each other<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mompaidu: <\/em>Clouds that pass through each other<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mamuliyo:<\/em> Clouds carried by gentle wind<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mun-nut-nut:<\/em> Clouds that drop down like seeds of cotton<\/p>\n\n\n\n Baliknug: <\/em>Clouds that surround the sun\/moon<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mon-abunab: <\/em>Clouds that hug the earth<\/p>\n\n\n\n Mon-ambayug:<\/em> Clouds that appear to wear a hip bag<\/p>\n\n\n\n Imbunong:<\/em> As if a shadow under a cloud<\/p>\n\n\n\n Manulul: <\/em>Clouds that exchange places; cross each other<\/p>\n\n\n\n Libbuwog:<\/em> Clouds that hide the sun<\/p>\n\n\n\n Halibubu:<\/em> Clouds that looks like floating water plants<\/p>\n\n\n\n The appearance of light white or grayish feathery clouds similar to cirrus clouds and rounded tops with flat bottoms like the cumulus clouds signify fair weather (maugo<\/em>). Conversely, dark gray lumpy clouds resembling the stratus clouds and ominously towering clouds are referred to as nahyong<\/em>. These are believed to bring forth rain and thunderstorm. Mumbulyun<\/em> is when dark clouds are fast moving signifying the arrival of a typhoon, known as puwok.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n Ominous clouds signaling an impending heavy rainfall<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n Old folks recall that typhoons commonly emanate from two directions, from daya (upstream region) and lagud (downstream region). Umalgo<\/em><\/strong> is believed to be the sun god, Hinumbian<\/em><\/strong> is the god of the wind, and Puwok<\/em><\/strong> is the god of typhoons, Amkidul<\/em><\/strong> is the god of thunder, while Baguilat<\/em><\/strong> is the god of lightning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Types of wind that accompany the arrival of a typhoon are described as dumubudub<\/em> (gentle wind), umapli<\/em> (squall or tempestuous wind with little rain), and lumuwad<\/em> (wind that tips a house). Similarly, Barton (1949) classified types of thunder (kidul\/kodyam<\/em>) as follows:<\/p>\n\n\n\n Binabaan:<\/em> Toothed thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Ngumalakngak: <\/em>Rattling thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Umalolot: <\/em>Throbbing or vibrating after a thunderclap<\/p>\n\n\n\n Umalakaak:<\/em> Rolling thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Nginalakngakan:<\/em> Intermittent rattling thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Umalogo-og:<\/em> Deep rolling thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Bumayugbug: <\/em>Shaking ground and house thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dumunguwol: <\/em>Like the cry of a startled pig thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Umungngul: <\/em>Diminishing end of a peal thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n Umunuwol:<\/em> Thud-like falling tree thunder<\/p>\n\n\n\n According to Binlingan Cabbigat, a mumbaki <\/em>(traditional priest) from Hungduan, there are four types of typhoons that usually visit Ifugao, namely: Puwok ad Ambatu, Puwok ad Datal, Puwok ad Baliga, <\/em>and Puwok ad Lagud. <\/em>In Ambatu, known typhoon gods and goddesses are Puki, Inhabian, Gogo, and Wakwakon. On the other hand, Manungod, Mamungbungawi, Mamungpung-I, and Indangyap are known to live in Datal,In Baliga, the informant could only recall a god named Bubud. Meanwhile, at Lagud, a certain Mamungod and Dinaiwwe live there.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In one of the folktales narrated by Binlingan, Puki, a typhoon god living in Ambatu, was once looking down the earth world. Suddenly, he caught a sight of Inhabian weaving under a hut and was immediately captivated by her beauty. Having fallen for her, he sent strong winds over the area and taken up Inhabian to her abode. Thus, Inhabian became of one the typhoon goddess along with the famed Bugan.<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n To prevent rice crop failure, keenness on weather and climatic changes prompted the Ifugaos to carefully plan each agricultural work within a year. The systematic scheduling of tasks in rice cultivation exemplifies an efficient organization of agricultural work (Conklin: 1980). A village agricultural leader, called tumonak <\/em>is chosen based on his knowledge on weather indicators, skill in making critical decisions, and exemplary behavior. Virtually, he leads the farmers in every stage of agricultural activity. In addition, rituals are always performed to appease deities and ancestors insofar as they are believed to influence weather conditions and the success or failure of the crops.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 1. The Agricultural Calendar<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n a. Iwang\/Kiwang: Off Season (July to November)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n The bilau<\/em> (arrow cane grass), hanil <\/em>grass, and sunflower bud and bloom, mushrooms sprout, Pulut<\/em> shrub, Binul, Gutmu,<\/em> and Dogwe <\/em>trees bear fruit. Bakkako<\/em> grasshoppers mature and multiply while frogs emerge and bats appear.<\/p>\n\n\n\n During this period, agricultural efforts are focused on preparing pond-field terraces for new rice crop. Water outlets are blocked to raise water levels in the terrace, pond fields are cleaned and decaying vegetables are treaded into the mud to enhance soil fertility. Maintenance and reshaping of terrace slopes are done. Moreover, woodlots are planted and crops at the swidden farms are harvested and replanted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n b. Lawang: Planting Season (December to March)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n Arrival of the Killing<\/em> birds indicates the preparation for the laying of rice seeds. The short legged Habu, Tiwad, Manalatal, <\/em>and Hiyot<\/em> also appear. These birds disappear by mid January or early February.<\/p>\n\n\n\n This is also the season of field work and rice planting. Terraces are prepared for full inundated cropping, soil conditions are improved, repair of terrace dikes are completed, seedbeds are prepared, and rice seedlings are transplanted. Thereafter, marginal slopes and sides of pond fields are cleaned of weeds.<\/p>\n\n\n\n c. Tiyalgo: Dry Season (April to June)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n The Kallawag<\/em> vine and the Butgi <\/em>shrub come into fruition; the Luhung, Adawe<\/em>, and Gabgab<\/em> trees bear flowers; and the Dudun <\/em>grasshoppers, Al-aladog <\/em>and Buliklik<\/em> show up. If the bamboo, Bikal <\/em>vine, Anao<\/em>, and Bitbitkin<\/em> shrub bear flowers, there is an impending drought.<\/p>\n\n\n\n During this period, rice seedlings are growing and activities are geared towards crop and field maintenance. Weeds that have taken root in between tillering rice plants are cleared. Irrigation channels are frequently checked. Weeding takes place and further build up of the rat population is prevented. Also, the maturing rice is inspected of pest infestation. Meanwhile, swidden farms are cleared and re-planted.<\/p>\n\n\n\n d. Ahitulu: Harvest Season (June to July)<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n Buding<\/em> (maya birds, Lonchurra spp.) and Kiyo<\/em> appear at the rice fields. They feed on the maturing rice grains and some build their nest in between rice stalks. Harvesting of rice crops, drying, and storage are done during this period. Feasting follows after abundant harvest.<\/p>\n\n\n\n 2. Rituals<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n When an upcoming thunder storm or typhoon is foreseen, the rituals gito and puwok are performed to spare the crops from being devastated. In case of rat infestation, the hulin or tagtag ritual is accomplished to drive away the rats from the rice fields. As to worm attack, herbs (holok) are collected and the prepared compound is applied to the affected rice fields.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In the past few years, farmers have been experiencing significant changes in weather and climatic conditions. Most apparent are the extreme hotness and coolness of atmospheric temperature, unpredictability of rainfall, and typhoon occurrence. Sometimes, temperatures are unbearably scorching during sunny days and freezing during cold and rainy days. Further, it was observed that there were more rainy days than sunny days during the dry season. However, what is more confusing is the interval between rainy and sunny days. For instance, the sun shines brightly at day break then, all of a sudden, it rains heavily for hours, stops and shines again. The arrival of typhoons during the dry season is also another unexpected phenomenon. All of these, couple with other environmental factors, resulted to destruction of crops, massive erosion of rice fields and road networks, as well as landslides among mountainous terrains and even residential areas.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Previously, when there was no weather forecasting technology available,farmers based their prediction environmental, plant and animal behaviors as indicators of weather change. In present times improved technologies are available for making weather forecasts and dissemination.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Inasmuch as traditional weather indicators are still the major source of weather and climate information for farm management in rural areas, understanding the local people\u2019s perception on climate and weather changes, plant and animal behavior, and astronomical as well as meteorological phenomena is essential.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Though the reliability of the traditional indicators is not definite, it helps the farmer to prepare and mitigate the adverse effects of adverse weather condition. Rather than perceiving indigenous knowledge as a cause of underdevelopment, it might be better to utilize it as a tool for development. If indigenous knowledge is used to complement scientific weather forecasting methods, inaccuracies in predicting weather conditions may be avoided and more fitting coping mechanisms are developed and employed.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n Landslides damage ricefields during heavy rainfalls and typhoons<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n Barton, Roy Franklin (1946). “The Religion of the Ifugaos.” American Anthropological Association Memoir 65:1-219<\/a>.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Barton, R.F. 1922, Ifugao Economics. <\/strong>University of California Publications in American Archeology and Ethnology, vol<\/a>. <\/strong>15 # 5, pp<\/a>. 385-446<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Baki, P. 2006. Astronomy in the Cultural Heritage of African societies<\/em>. Retrieved on 22 October 2009 from http:\/\/journals.cambridge.org.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Conklin, H.C. 1980. <\/strong>Ethnographic Atlas of Ifugao: A Study of Environment, Culture and Society in Northern Luzon<\/a>. <\/strong>New Haven and London: Yale University Press<\/a>.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Galacgac, E. S. and Balicasan, C. M. <\/strong>Traditional weather forecasting for sustainable agroforestry practices in Ilocos Norte Province, Philippines<\/a>. http:\/\/www.sciencedirect.com. 7 February 2009.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Predicting and Managing the Effects of Climate Change on World Heritage<\/a>. <\/strong>A joint report from the World Heritage Centre, its Advisory Bodies, and a broad group of experts to the 30th session of the World Heritage Committee. <\/strong>UNESCO, March 16 & 17, 2006<\/a>.<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Rengalakshmi, R. <\/strong>Linking Traditional and Scientific Knowledge Systems on Climate Prediction and Utilization<\/a>. <\/strong>M.S.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation. Chennai, India. http:\/\/www.millenniumassessment.org.documents\/bridging\/papers\/raj.rengalakshmi.pdf<\/p>\n\n\n\n Verma, L. R. 1998. Weather Forecasting. <\/strong>Indigenous Technology Knowledge for Watershed Management in Upper North-West Himalayas of India<\/a>. C. 8. <\/strong>Participatory Watershed Management Training in Asia (PWMTA) Program<\/a>.<\/strong>GCP\/RAS\/161\/NET, FAO (UN), Kathmandu, Nepal. http:\/\/www.fao.org\/docrep\/x5672e\/x5672e00.HTM<\/p>\n\n\n\n <\/p>\n\n\n\n INTERVIEWEES:<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Ananayo, Paul Sr. A farmer from Poblacion, Hungduan, Ifugao.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Cabbigat, Binlingan. A from Poblacion, Hungduan, Ifugao.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dogalon, Indudun. A farmer from Namulditan, Hingyon, IfugaoKimayong, Yammuyam. A mumbaki from Namulditan, Hingyon, Ifugao.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":" Suggested citation: Ananayo,Z.(2009). Traditional Weather Indicators: Implications to Ifugao Agriculture and Daily Life. Nurturing Indigenous Knowledge Experts among the younger generations, Phase 3. nikeprogramme.net. https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/?p=91 …<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"om_disable_all_campaigns":false,"_monsterinsights_skip_tracking":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_active":false,"_monsterinsights_sitenote_note":"","_monsterinsights_sitenote_category":0,"footnotes":""},"categories":[8],"tags":[],"aioseo_notices":[],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91"}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=91"}],"version-history":[{"count":17,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":581,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/91\/revisions\/581"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=91"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=91"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/nikeprogramme.net\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=91"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}Weather Conditions in Ifugao<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
The Weather Indicators<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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<\/figure>Coping Mechanisms to Weather Conditions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Conclusions<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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<\/figure>References<\/h2>\n\n\n\n